Composition And Experimentation In British Rock 1967-1976 |
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:: Home :: :: Index :: :: Workshop :: :: Search:: :: Staff :: The “Hippie Aesthetic”As mentioned above, much rock music from the early and mid Seventies was driven by a collection of attitudes and practices that can be called the “hippie aesthetic.” As we have seen in our brief survey of the 1966-1980 period, the hippie aesthetic grew out of psychedelia and helps explains how many of the distinct styles that emerged in the Seventies share common musical and cultural values. We will now consider the components of this aesthetic attitude in greater detail, and these musical and aesthetic features will be divided into discussions of musical ambition, technology, virtuosity, lyrics, and concept albums. Because I consider progressive rock to most strongly and consistently exemplify these characteristics, I will make particular reference to progressive rock bands and their music in the discussion that follows. Musical Ambition. The first and most dominant
characteristic of the hippie aesthetic is the tendency to imbue rock
with a sense of seriousness of purpose. From a musical point of view,
this often took the form of borrowing from styles that had a high degree
of cultural prestige, such as classical music and jazz. Hippie rock
also borrowed from folk and blues styles, but drawing on these styles
gave the music a sense of earthy groundedness that can often balance
the music’s higher aspirations. Jazz is mostly invoked through extended
soloing, and often soloing employing modal scales within sections in
a single key. The uses of classical music can be divided into two types:
those which evoke the “great classical tradition” (mostly 18th
and 19th European century instrumental music), and those
that employ techniques and practices more often associated with 20th-century
modernist and avant-garde music. The use of classical music and techniques,
drawn from the “great classical tradition,” can be found in Beatles’
music, starting with the use of the string quartet in Yesterday,
for instance, and leading through Eleanor
Rigby to She’s Leaving
Home. (7)
Beginning with The Nice, Keith Emerson developed a reputation
for adapting familiar classical pieces for rock band; he continued this
practice with Emerson, Lake & Palmer, perhaps most famously with
that band’s adaptation of Mussourgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition. The
recorded sounds of symphonic strings and concert chorus as found on
the Mellotron keyboard became central timbres in the music of King Crimson,
Genesis, and Yes; the lush string sounds in King Crimson’s Epitaph
or Genesis’ Watchers of the Skies
provide representative examples. The use of harpsichord or classical
guitar, perhaps featured most obviously in Yes’ Madrigal,
are clear references to classical music, as are the recorders that can
be found in the music of Gentle Giant. In addition to appropriating
the timbres and textures from classical music, progressive rock musicians
also borrowed ideas of large-scale form, motivic presentation and development,
and counterpoint and contrapuntal textures. Perhaps the most obvious
use traditional contrapuntal practices may be found in Gentle Giant’s
On Reflection, which is
built around a tradition fugal exposition, presented initially in a
four-part a capella vocal texture, and later repeated
using various instrumental combinations. (8) Technology. Ambitious rock made use of
the most up-to-date technologies in its quest for greater sophistication,
and the development of recording technology and advances in synthesizer
technology were central to many hippie rockers. In the period starting
roughly in the early Sixties and extending into the early Seventies,
recording technology developed from use of 2- and 3-track machines,
to 8- and 16-track, and then to 24- and 48-track capabilities. Over
this period, musicians increasingly use the recording studio as a kind
of composer’s sketch pad. Brian Wilson’s mid Sixties studio experimentations—which
produced Pet Sounds and
Good Vibrations—produced
music that was only possible in the studio. The Beatles’ retreat from
live performance into studio experimentation—and the release of Strawberry Fields Forever and Sgt.
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band—further accelerated a trend
among rock musicians toward studio experimentation. By the early Seventies,
short sections of music were typically built up in layers using multi-track
recording techniques, with these sections edited together to create
long—sometimes very long—album tracks. Strawberry
Fields, for instance, is actually the product of two recorded
versions in different keys that were spliced together using studio technology.
Yes’ Close to the Edge was recorded in short sections
and assembled into the final version without the band having performed
this version before the editing was completed. (10) Virtuosity. As the Sixties unfolded, many
rock musicians increasingly strove to be the best players they could
possibly be. The Beatles and Bob Dylan provided the model for musicians
who wrote and performed their own music, always playing on their own
records, but it was probably the friendly competition between guitarists
Eric Clapton and Jimi Hendrix in the late Sixties that established the
idea that a rock musician could also be a virtuoso musician. And as
late Sixties rock listeners turned more toward listening carefully to
the music, it became possible for rock musicians to build a reputation
based on their instrumental prowess. Rockers interested in developing
their technical skills often turned to classical and jazz styles for
models of instrumental virtuosity. Under the influence of John Coltrane,
The Byrds’ Roger McGuinn had quoted the jazz saxophonist’s India in the band’s hit single Eight Miles High. Hendrix and Clapton both
improvised freely in live performance, blending blues elements with
modal jazz. San Francisco bands such as the Grateful Dead and Jefferson
Airplane were well known for their extended jams onstage—something the
Beatles or the Stones had never really done but that the more improvisatory
bands embraced with great enthusiasm, as did their fans. Progressive
rockers were also very influenced by jazz, but these musicians also
imitated classical-music virtuosity. The classical guitar interludes
of Steve Howe of Yes or Steve Hackett of Genesis seemed inspired by
the playing of Andres Segovia and Julian Bream, while the grand piano
stylings of Keith Emerson and Rick Wakeman left no doubt that they were
drawing on classical practices and techniques, with Wakeman throwing
some pipe organ into the mix. Following in the footsteps of bassist
Paul McCartney and the Who’s John Entwhisle, who had developed and approach
to the electric bass that allowed it to play a more melodic role than
it had before, Yes’ Chris Squire, Genesis’ Michael Rutherford, and Gentle
Giant’s Ray Shulman further raised the bar for technical command and
made the bass into an equal partner with the lead guitar. Drummers Carl
Palmer, Yes’ Bill Bruford, and Genesis’ Phil Collins were among the
many who likewise raised the technical standard for percussionists,
often adding orchestral percussion instruments to their increasingly
drum kits.
(12)
Lyrics and “big ideas.” As rock became
more ambitious—stylistically, technologically, and music-technically—musicians
and fans of the style were no longer satisfied with lyrics that focused
on sentimental romantic themes. The naïve love songs of rock’s first
decade began to be replaced by songs with increasingly serious-minded
lyrics. With only a few exceptions, lyrics of most rock and roll from
the Fifties and early Sixties had dealt with issues of teen life: romance,
cars, dancing, parents, etc.
(13)
Some of Leiber and Stoller’s songs for the Coasters engage issues of
race and social concern, while others are ambitious in that they attempt
to tell a story (borrowing from Broadway musicals). While Will
You Love Me Tomorrow, a 1960 song penned and produced by
Carole King and Gerry Goffin, engages issues of teenage sexuality in
a way that was daring in its day, and some of Chuck Berry’s songs (Memphis
especially) betray a new concern for interesting lyrics, most rock lyrics
remained fairly tame, even if the performances are often much more provocative.
(14)
The change is pop lyrics can be traced to the emergence
of Bob Dylan in the mid Sixties, and to Dylan’s transformation of folk
music into the singer-songwriter style. Folk lyrics had often dealt
with issues of social and communal concern, but Dylan began to craft
lyrics with a more personal, poetic, and philosophical focus, turning
the “we” of folk community-building (as his detractors would famously
quip) into the “me” of individual expression. If the Beatles influenced
Dylan to turn to the electric guitar in 1965, Dylan certainly influenced
the Beatles to get more serous about their lyrics and soon John Lennon
was confessing his unhappiness in Help and Paul McCartney was contemplating
alienation in Eleanor Rigby.
By the 1967 Summer of Love, rock lyrics frequently strove to be “relevant,”
as She Loves You became All You Need Is Love.In some progressive rock of the Seventies, lyrics deal with social, cultural,
and political issues, offering sometimes blistering critique of government,
institutions, and social practices. Jethro Tull provide some of the
most obvious examples in this regard: their 1971 album Aqualung
offers a sustained attack on the church and its uncomprehending duplicity
in the face of poverty and homelessness. Thick as a Brick from 1972 continues this critical attitude
by focusing on provincial values and cultural practices in England.
A gentler and perhaps more arcane critique of British culture can be
found in Genesis’ Selling England
by the Pound, while The
Musical Box weaves a dark, mischievous, and surreal tale
of Victorian perversity among the British aristocracy. Other progressive-rock
lyrics deal with spirituality, though almost never from the point of
view of institutional Christianity. Eastern philosophy and the “wisdom
of the ancients” are favorite themes, and here Yes’ Close
to the Edge (influenced by Herman Hesse’s Siddhartha)
and Tales From Topographic Oceans
(influenced by Paramahansa Yogananda’s Autobiography
of a Yogi) might serve as representative examples, though
Jethro Tull’s A Passion Play
deals with life after death and Genesis’ Supper’s Ready contemplates the apocalypse.
Other progressive-rock lyrics deal with fantasy and science-fiction
themes, often with social and cultural critiques gently concealed beneath
the surface. Emerson, Lake & Palmer’s Tarkus and Brain
Salad Surgery provide clear instances, the first dealing
with a struggle between comic-book-style fantasy beasts, while the second
flashes into a dark, computer-controlled future. Dylan made an art of
what he called the “finger wagging” song—a song that levels a direct
and often unrelenting criticism on some target. This approach is picked
up by the Beatles and the Kinks, among many others, and also by The
Who’s Pete Townshend, whose Tommy is an extended indictment of what he
takes to be the superficiality of hippie culture. Ian Anderson’s lyrics
for Jethro Tull are probably the most consistent example of progressive-rock
finger wagging, and can at times be quite aggressive and direct, as
in My God. Concept albums and conceptual music. The turn toward serious-minded lyrics, combined with the growth of
musical ambitiousness, led to the rise of the concept album in rock
music. Many fans and critics think of the Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band as
the first important concept album in rock music. While John Lennon denied
that any of his songs on that album were written with the Sgt. Pepper
“concept” in mind, it is nonetheless true that the album was understood
to be a concept album, and soon many other bands and artists were imitating
it. The most useful definition of the concept album views it as a collection
of songs that somehow tell a story or at least address the same general
topic or set of topics—the “concept” of the album. In the case of Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, the
unifying idea is that the Beatles portray the members of this fictional
town band, and the album unfolds a make-believe show, beginning with
an introductory song in which the audience is welcomed, and leading
directly into the number by Billy Shears (Ringo). The concept breaks
off at this point, though the introductory number returns at the end
to introduce the final track, A Day in the Life. Album packaging added
a new dimension to concept albums, with cover art and illustrations
playing a central role and sometimes providing information that makes
the story or unifying themes clearer or more obvious. The elaborate
packaging of Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely
Hearts Club Band served as a model for later albums such
as Tommy and Thick
as a Brick. The distinctive covers of Yes and Pink Floyd
albums of the Seventies—designed by Roger Dean and Hipgnosis respectively—were
central to the experience of the music they contained. |
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1.
Introduction / The Historical Frame
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